What do we know about resilience?

Defining resilience

Stress, limitations, difficult situations, losses, major life changes like aging, and even death are all part of being human. While at first glance, these issues may seem like the sworn enemies of positive psychology, given that they are inevitable, it is important to manage them well to lead a fulfilling life.

The concept of resilience was conceived about 40 years ago when researchers noticed that some people adapted well to life despite the presence of serious circumstances (such as the loss of parents at a young age, for example). This indicated a positive divergence from typical pathological models that assumed that early traumatic experiences would undoubtedly have negative consequences in life. However, little scientific research was devoted to this phenomenon and the scope of study was quite narrow. Only in the last 20 years has the study of resilience grown considerably, and a recent study revealed that the use of the term “resilience” in academic literature has increased eightfold over the last two decades.

Resilience can be described as a relative resistance to stress as well as current and future adverse events or conditions (abuse, divorce, poverty, etc.). In other words, resilience is an ability to bounce back and feel in control of our emotions and reactions in difficult circumstances. People who possess this capacity are more socially active and responsive, and adapt successfully to the experience of risk factors.

Resilience is actually a multifaceted construct. It is both a capacity and an active process that encompasses a person's flexibility in responding to the demands of changing situations and the ability to bounce back from negative emotional experiences. We can distinguish three facets of resilience: recovery, resistance, and reconfiguration.

Recovery is that facet of resilience that refers to returning to normal, to the level of functioning (health and psychosocial well-being) before the stress.
Resilience occurs when a person shows very little or no signs of disturbance (low distress, normal functioning) following a challenging event.
Reconfiguration occurs when a person returns to homeostasis in a different form, with key aspects about that person changing as a result of their experience.

Although resilience is a complex phenomenon, many of its skills can be learned through the tools offered by coping and adaptation skills, post-traumatic growth, cognitive behavioral therapy, positive psychology, mindfulness, and more. Let us therefore examine in detail the areas of research and practice that inform our current understanding of resilience.

1) Face

The literature on coping discusses three broad types of strategies that people tend to use: problem-focused coping, emotion-focused coping, and avoidance coping (Carr, 2004). Problem-focused coping occurs when people identify a problem and take steps to resolve it. These strategies aim to directly change the source of stress by addressing the problem. Emotion-focused coping is not so much focused on the problem as on the emotions it arouses in us. Thus, if we turn to someone else for help, it will usually be for emotional support (e.g., talking, crying, empathy), rather than instrumental support (e.g., specific advice on what to do in the situation). It is often helpful to address the emotions first, before focusing on the actual problem. When the emotions have been addressed, we can better reflect and assess the situation more accurately, seeing the different possibilities available. These strategies are also more suitable for uncontrollable stressful situations, when it is impossible to “solve” the problem. Avoidance occurs when people try to deny the existence of the problem and block it out of their minds (possibly with the help of alcohol, drugs, or even studies/work).

Concrete strategies in these three broad groups can be both functional and dysfunctional. For example, accepting responsibility for solving a problem or developing a realistic action plan are functional, problem-focused strategies, while procrastination is a dysfunctional strategy. Similarly, catharsis, emotional venting, or seeking support from friends are constructive, emotion-focused ways to cope, while engaging in destructive relationships, aggression, or desire-driven thoughts are much less so. Avoidance-focused strategies can also be useful in the short term. However, being continuously distracted and mentally disengaging from the experience is dysfunctional, partly because unresolved problems do not resolve themselves but tend to worsen over time.

2) Post-traumatic growth (PTG)

We face stressful situations every day, some more severe than others. However, sometimes we encounter traumatic events (e.g., the death of a parent or the discovery/onset of a disability) that can change the course of our lives forever. Some beliefs (e.g., that the world is generally a fair place) may no longer seem true, and many goals may no longer seem important. Yet, even when this happens, some individuals emerge from the experience having gained something. This phenomenon is called posttraumatic growth. It is associated with better health not only psychologically, but also physically (Baumeister & Vohs, 2002).

By experiencing post-traumatic growth, many people feel much stronger after the adversity and have more confidence in themselves and their abilities. Others report having better and stronger relationships, or a greater sense of compassion for others in similar situations. Sometimes, people learn to appreciate what they have again, even the little things in life that we so often take for granted. Some also discover meaning or spirituality as a result of the event, which leads to the development of a more coherent and satisfying worldview and philosophy of life (Tedeschi & Calhoun, 2004).

A renowned psychologist, Victor Frankl (1963), himself a Holocaust survivor, noted that the attitude one adopts in the face of adversity is crucial: “Everything can be taken from a man, but … the last of human freedoms – to decide how to behave in a given set of circumstances, to choose one’s own course.” For example, if a traumatic situation is perceived as a challenge, the person is more likely to experience PTC.

Several factors that contribute to CPT are also useful skills that can help develop resilience. These include:

– Make sense of the situation
– Find meaning/sense
– Attitude towards adversity
– Interpersonal support.

3) Cognitive behavioral therapy

Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) is a term used to describe interventions that aim to reduce psychological stress and maladaptive behaviors by changing cognitive processes or thinking. Indeed, many psychological problems have been found to be associated with distorted or deficient thinking (for example, people with anxiety disorders have been found to misperceive ambiguous events as threatening). Several studies have concluded that CBT is an effective way to help us treat psychological or behavioral problems (e.g., Dray et al, 2017).

The basic principle of CBT is that, since behavior and feelings are influenced by cognitive processes, changing our thinking can lead to changes in behavior and feelings. CBT focuses on the “here and now” rather than the past, and is based on a guided process of self-discovery, experimentation, and skill development.

The essential elements of cognitive-behavioral interventions that may be helpful in developing resilience are listed below:

– Thought monitoring (e.g., identifying negative automatic thoughts)
– Identifying and challenging cognitive distortions and thinking traps (jumping to conclusions; tunnel vision; amplifying the negative and minimizing the positive; personalizing or externalizing blame; overgeneralizing small failures, etc.)
– Evaluation and reframing of thinking (development of alternative cognitive processes)
– A deliberate optimism in developing new and positive future perspectives
– Affective labeling (e.g., naming the emotions experienced)
– Affective monitoring (e.g., scales to assess intensity)
– Emotional management (e.g., relaxation techniques)
– Role play, modeling and rehearsal
– Home practice and exercises

4) Positive psychology

Positive psychology (PP) is the science of the positive aspects of human life, such as happiness, well-being, and fulfillment. Often contrasted with the medical model, this approach explicitly emphasizes the potential of individuals and the search for what gives meaning to our lives (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000). Positive psychology asks slightly different questions, such as “What works” rather than “What doesn’t work,” “What is right with this person” rather than “What is wrong,” “Why do some individuals succeed when faced with adverse circumstances” rather than “Why do some fail.” In short, positive psychology can be summed up as building on strengths, rather than dwelling on what goes wrong. The following positive psychological elements and interventions have been identified as helpful in developing resilience (Tabibnia & Radecki, 2018).

– Identify your previous experiences of success and competence
– Recognize and use authentic and personal strengths
– Active engagement with those around you
– Harvest the “power” of positive emotions
– Develop a flexible mindset
– Participation in physical activity

5) Mindfulness

Research and evidence on mindfulness has grown exponentially in recent years, with the combined number of publications in the last three years representing more than the total number of publications from 1980 to 2013. This explosion of research reflects the growing interest in mindfulness among scientists and practitioners. Jon Kabat-Zinn, the creator of the Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) program, describes mindfulness as “the act of paying attention in a particular way, intentionally, in the present moment, and non-judgmentally” (Kabat-Zin, 2013, p. xxxv) with the ability to remain fully present in whatever is happening as it is happening. Extensive neuroscientific studies have shown that mindfulness changes how the brain functions—it improves cognitive flexibility, creativity and innovation, well-being, emotional regulation, and empathy. Mindfulness is also presented as an effective strategy for emotional regulation, improving stress regulation and psychological and physical well-being, and enhancing cognitive flexibility, pain management, and enhancing positive affect. Combining CBT and mindfulness approaches has been shown to contribute to the overall effectiveness of a resilience intervention (Joyce et al, 2018).

Examples of mindfulness exercises include the “Body Scan” (focusing the mind on specific body parts in sequence, with complete and indivisible awareness, creating more focused attention), or mindful listening (bringing complete and focused attention to all sounds surrounding a person). While some of these techniques, such as the Body Scan, can be time-consuming, others can be completed easily, in about 5 minutes. Including these techniques in multi-component resilience interventions helps with emotion and stress regulation.

In conclusion

Science tells us that resilience can be developed, with evidence indicating that multiple resources can be leveraged through training and interventions (Dray, et al., 2017). Over the past twelve years, we have created the SPARK Resilience Program, which has been delivered in educational and workplace settings through digital and face-to-face means and has demonstrated positive impact on resilience, self-esteem, and depression outcomes (Boniwell & Ryan, 2009; Pluess & Boniwell, 2015; Pluess, Boniwell, Hefferon, & Tunariu, 2017). The program has evolved based on the latest research findings and now includes most of the resilience-enhancing strategies identified in the literature. Most recently, the program was piloted during the Covid-19 lockdown and improved resilience and meaning in life, also achieving negative affect and stress reduction.

Learn more:

See our SPARK Resilience at Work training

See our SPARK Resilience in Education training

Read our SPARK Resilience during Covid-19 study

Check out our resilience toolkit, which includes videos and interviews with resilience experts from around the world.

Scientific references

Baumeister, RF & Vohs, KD (2002). The pursuit of meaningfulness in life. In CR Snyder & SJ Lopez (Eds.), Handbook of Positive Psychology (pp.608–618) . New York: Oxford University Press.

Boniwell, I. & Ryan, L. (2009). SPARK Resilience: A teacher’s guide. London, UK: University of East London.

Carr, A. (2004). Positive Psychology. Hove: Brunner-Routledge.

Dray, J., Bowman, J., Campbell, E., Freund, M., Wolfenden, L., Hodder, RK, … & Small, T. (2017). Systematic review of universal resilience-focused interventions targeting child and adolescent mental health in the school setting. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry , 56 (10), 813-824.

Frankl, VE (1963). Man's Search for Meaning , Washington Square Press, Simon and Schuster, New York

Joyce, S., Shand, F., Tighe, J., Laurent, SJ, Bryant, RA, & Harvey, SB (2018). Road to resilience: a systematic review and meta-analysis of resilience training programs and interventions. BMJ Open , 8 (6), e017858.

Kabat-Zinn, J. (2013). Full catastrophe living, revised edition: how to cope with stress, pain and illness using mindfulness meditation . Hachette UK.

Pluess, M., & Boniwell, I. (2015). Sensory-processing sensitivity predicts treatment response to a school-based depression prevention program: Evidence of vantage sensitivity. Personality and Individual Differences , 82 , 40-45.

Pluess, M., Boniwell, I., Hefferon, K., & Tunariu, A. (2017). Preliminary evaluation of a school-based resilience-promoting intervention in a high-risk population: Application of an exploratory two-cohort treatment/control design. PloS one , 12 (5), e0177191.

Seligman, MEP & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2000). Positive Psychology: An introduction. American Psychologist , 55 , 5-14.

Tabibnia, G., & Radecki, D. (2018). Resilience training that can change the brain. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 70 (1), 59-88.

Tedeschi, RG & Calhoun, LG (2004). A clinical approach to posttraumatic growth. In PA Linley and S. Joseph (Eds.) Positive Psychology in Practice (pp.405–419) . Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.